II. The NorthStar Method

The Spanish-American Institute uses the five-level NorthStar series in ESL 2-6, Business English, and ARW. NorthStar employs the ESL teaching profession’s model of best practices. Each NorthStar unit integrates reading/writing with listening/speaking to help students build language competence while encouraging personal expression.

The NorthStar Method incorporates the following:

1. Respect for Students.

NorthStar assumes that students are mature, intelligent people who have something to say, even when not fluent in English.

2. Critical Thinking/Higher Order Thinking Skills.

NorthStar units lead students through exercises of increasing detail and complexity. "Thinking" with a language develops neural pathways in the brain not developed by passive drills such as grammar exercises. We do not speak grammar. When students think with or create with language, they begin to make it their own.

3. Vocabulary Comprehension Learned From Context.

In NorthStar's “vocabulary” work, words are not ends in themselves. Vocabulary and other word-work integrate several language skills at once within thematic contexts. “Vocabulary” work in NorthStar requires reading, thinking, writing, etc. Vocabulary and Focus on Words sections provide practice in the use of words within larger contexts that require students to listen, speak, read, and write within larger sentence patterns. They use “words” as the variable raw material to develop these target skills.

4. Grammar Learned From Context and Application.

NorthStar’s formal grammar study comes near the end of the unit. This is deliberate. We do not speak grammar. We certainly do not learn to listen or speak by learning grammar. In NorthStar, by the time students get to the formal "grammar" section, they have had considerable experience using the target grammar. They have already:

§ heard the grammar forms many times,

§ spoken the grammar forms many times,

§ read the grammar forms many times, and

§ written them (if the teacher has provided students with writing opportunities based on the Unit’s activities).

5. Activities.

Traditional language learning books involve students in passive, disconnected work. Modern language learning books like NorthStar use “activities” instead of “exercises.” Students participate in “activities” through which they actively learn to create with language.

6. Style.

NorthStar’s "Style" section teaches the cultural and social uses of language in everyday life, in the workplace, and in the American classroom. Examples include: how to answer the telephone in home and business settings, how to disagree with someone, or how to get someone's attention without making them angry.

7. Research/Fieldwork.

The end of each unit assigns students highly structured guided activity based on the Unit's theme. The activity typically requires that they observe something "in the field" or do research on the Internet or elsewhere and then share their observations with a group or with the class. Notice how NorthStar always provides students with a safety net such as an outline to follow or a set of guiding questions. Teachers should spend time on this important textbook component, since it allows students to employ everything they have learned in the Unit in their own personal way.

8. Safety Nets.

NorthStar has built-in safety nets. Each exercise or activity builds upon the skills of the previous one(s). The textbook never asks to do something without previously having given them the material and guidance they need to do it. The safety net assumes that teachers will recognize when they need to return to a previous activity and repeat it. If students have difficulty with a new activity, they obviously have not mastered the skills of previous activities needed to do the new work. .

III. NorthStar Listening and Speaking Unit Organization

NorthStar is organized around a carefully developed sequence of activities. Each NorthStar activity is there for a reason. Each unit leads students from a more controlled practice of English to more independent practice.

Teachers should to spend up to three weeks if not more on each NorthStar Unit. Do not rush through the activities. Do not skip around. Do not skip any activity. The student’s ability to understand the listening passages and then to understand the more complex activities that come after listening depends on mastery of the earlier activities. Everything is there for a reason.

1. Unit Organization

Theme

1. Focus on the Topic

A. Predicting

B. Sharing Information

C.. Preparing to Listen

Background

Vocabulary for Comprehension

2. Focus on Listening

A. Listening One

Listening for Main Ideas

Listening for Details

Reacting to the Listening

B. Listening Two

C. Linking Listenings One and Two

3. Focus on Vocabulary

4. Focus on Speaking

A. Pronunciation

B. Style

C. Grammar

D. Speaking Topic

E. Research Topics

2. “Predicting.”

Use "predicting" as a warm-up section that gives students an opportunity to share what they know in English about the Unit’s theme or topic in a relaxed fashion. Typically, students react to a visual image, respond to general questions, and share opinions. “Predicting” gives teachers some insight into their students’ actual command of the language before beginning a new Unit.

3. Implementing “Predicting.”

In this section, teachers encourage students to speak as much as they can without correcting them. “Predicting” requires at least an entire class period. Do not rush into the questions beneath the graphic. Ask students to describe something they see in the graphic. If necessary, ask them detailed questions about the graphic (e.g., how many people do you see in the picture? what are they doing?). Gradually move the discussion to the meaning of the unit’s title and theme. Encourage students to speak freely as best they can without correction. Respect their ideas and opinions about the topic, even if they don’t express themselves very well.

4. “Sharing Information.”

In “Sharing Information,” students typically respond to questions by entering simple information on a chart. The questions to which they respond are more specific and focused that those in “Predicting.” Usually in this activity students enter their information, then share it orally with one or more students. The purpose of “Sharing Information,” is to get students talking about the theme in response to simple but focused questions. These focused questions contain within them the introduction to the Unit’s theme, language patterns, vocabulary, etc.

5. Implementing “Sharing Information.”

“Sharing Information” will seldom

take less than one day and may require more than one day of class time.

Remember that NorthStar designs every activity to prepare students for the next, more demanding activity. It is, therefore, imperative that teachers spend enough time on each activity for students to master its content.

In “Sharing Information,” students will initially “fill in” sentence blanks or chart columns. However, the Spanish-American Institute expects teachers to go beyond the “fill in” answer mode of one that requires only bits of answers. Teachers should require students:

q to speak in complete sentences when answering the activities questions,

q to copy the complete sentence with the correct answer, and/or

q to write out the complete question’s answer during a portion of class time or as homework. (This is a way that teachers can extend writing from any NorthStar activity.)

In other words, in “Sharing Information,” as in other Unit activities, teachers should help students hear, speak, read, and write, in preparation for the progressively more challenging activities to come.

If students have difficulty with the next section, “Preparing to Listen—Vocabulary for Comprehension,” they have not mastered “Sharing Information.” If so, teachers should return to “Sharing Information,” perhaps asking students to do something more with it than they did previously (such as write out complete sentence answers or combine sentence answers into a short paragraph.)

6. “Preparing to Listen --Vocabulary for Comprehension.”

In this section, students work with words, expressions, and grammatical patterns selected to help with listening comprehension. The emphasis is not on learning “words.” The purpose is to develop comprehension skills from context.

“Vocabulary for Comprehension” may be the most important activity in the Unit. It introduces students to the language patterns and thematic emphases of the upcoming Listening activities and beyond.

7. Implementing “Vocabulary for Comprehension.”

Again, teachers should

ask students to do more than merely pick the right answer to Activity questions from a multiple choice list. Teachers should spend one to two days on this section, using “Vocabulary for Comprehension” to generate reading, writing, and speaking. Unless students can fluently read, write, and speak in response to “Vocabulary for Comprehension” activity, they will have great difficulty with the rest of the unit, especially its “Background” reading, listening, and writing sections.

8. “Preparing to Listen—Background.”

This section introduces students to information and language that will help them comprehend the upcoming listening passages. Teachers may need to return to the “Vocabulary for Comprehension” activity for more extensive work if students have difficulty with the “Background” reading passages and questions.

As in all NorthStar activities, teachers should maximize the activity as much as possible. This means requiring full sentence oral responses from students and full sentence or paragraph writing generated from the reading questions.

9. “Listening One.”

NorthStar divides Listening One into several listening sections. Listening One’s various listening activities move students from lower to higher order thinking/language skills in steps taking them through—

prediction,
comprehension of main ideas,
comprehension of details, and
inference (implied meaning).

10. “Listening Two.”

In “Two,” NorthStar presents students with new recorded material that builds on from Listening One. Listening Two delivers the material at a much faster pace. If they have mastered all of the preceding Unit material, students should have the skills needed to understand Listening Two. If not, teachers should repeat preceding activities to reinforce the needed skills.

11. “Linking Listening One and Two/Reacting to the Listening.”

This section asks students to employ more sophisticated higher order language skills in order:

q to relate Listening One and Listening Two,

q to consider consequences, and

q to distinguish points of view.

Again, if students cannot do this activity, the teacher should return to earlier Unit activities to assure enough mastery to respond to the “Linking” activity.

12. “Reviewing Language”/”Focus on Vocabulary.”

NorthStar Introductory calls this section "Reviewing Language," a good description of its purpose. The activity emphasizes the employment of language, not of words. Language consists of patterns. Words are only the variables that students fit into the patterns.

Other NorthStar texts call this section “Focus on Vocabulary.” As in the earlier Activity “Vocabulary for Comprehension,” work, the purpose is not to study words. The purpose is to work with them. These Activities help students explore, review, and play with language from the listening selection, while building reading, writing, and speaking skills.

13. “Pronunciation.”

Every unit focuses on a specific pronunciation element supported by recordings.

14. “Style.”

"Style" helps students use language appropriate to different settings, such as everyday life, business, academic environments, etc. The section helps students practice the cultural and social use of language.

15. “Grammar.”

Near the end of the unit, “Grammar” provides students with the formal rules of grammar used in the unit. The section reinforces the grammar through additional speaking exercises as well as reading and writing.

16. “Speaking Topics/Focus on Speaking.”

NorthStar leads students in each unit from a more controlled to a more independent practice of language. (NorthStar Introductory” includes “Speaking Topics/Focus on Speaking” in a section called "On Your Own,” a good description of its purpose in allowing students to apply everything learned so far to a more independent use of language.)

17. “Fieldwork/Research Topics.”

NorthStar Introductory included “Research” in “On Your Own" to emphasize its purpose in asking students to create with language based on everything learned so far. In "Research," students go outside the classroom “on their own” to gather data from personal observations, from interviews, from conversations, from the Internet, etc. The activity provides guided questions and directions to help them structure their oral and written reports, part of NorthStar’s “safety net” that never asks students to do more than they are prepared for.

VI. NorthStar Level Changes: Critical Thinking and Higher Order Language Skills

Students who found NorthStar Introductory for ESL 2 text difficult may find the Basic/Low Intermediate for ESL 3 text easier by comparison. This is deliberate and natural.

Second language learners tend to plateau at the intermediate level after beginning courses. NorthStar responds to this by dividing learning into three different Intermediate language levels—Low Intermediate, Intermediate, and High Intermediate.

For example, NorthStar Basic/Low Intermediate for ESL 3 repeats many of the grammar and structure elements found in NorthStar Introductory for ESL 2 such as the present tense. However, the ESL 3 text employs these elements like the present tense at an increasingly more sophisticated language level. Students work with longer, more complex sentences, select answers from a wider range of choices, listen to longer passages with more speakers, etc.

"How" and "Why" Questions (Critical Thinking, Higher Order Thinking Skills, and Higher Order Language Skills). The chart below focuses on some of the ways that the NorthStar’s texts used in ESL 2, 3, and 4 texts reflect different levels of difficulty:

The ESL 2 Introductory text asks…

…a lot of “what" questions requiring answers that use only simple sentences.

The ESL 3 Low Intermediate text asks…

…more "how" than "what" questions. Why? Answers to "how" questions often require adverbial and prepositional phrases and clauses. Adverbial and prepositional phrases add complexity to sentence structure because they reflect more thinking about relationships such as the main idea to its time, place, emotional context, etc. For example, look at the relationships of time, place, and means that students must establish in a sentence like: "I took the bus to the movie on Main Street in the afternoon.”

The ESL 4 Intermediate text asks…

…more "why" questions than the previous texts that require answers using complex sentences. Complex sentences require subordinate (dependent) clauses. They reflect a higher level of critical thinking, since the speaker or writer must communicate how one idea depends upon or relates to another (is subordinate to the other).

Comparison of ESL 2, 3, and 4 NorthStar Texts for Language Complexity and Critical Thinking

Comparison of ESL 2, 3, and 4 NorthStar Texts for Language Complexity and Critical Thinking
	ESL 2	ESL 3	ESL 4
"Wh" questions	More "what" than "how/why."	More "how" and "why."	More "why."
Sentence structure	Simple sentences.	More complexity in simple sentences (e.g., adjectival, prepositional, and adverbial phrases and clauses).	Longer and more complex sentences with dependent (subordinate) clauses.
Structures that help communicate relationship, inference, assumptions, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, etc. (higher order skills)	"Should"	§ Descriptive & comparative adjectives. § Verbs + gerunds and infinitives. § "Can, should, out to, have"	§ Modals of preference, ability, and possibility. § Equatives and comparatives. § Infinitives of purpose.
Pair and group work	More pair than small group work—communication usually between 2 people. .	More small group work—communication usually between 3 or more people.	Larger groups and more group work—communication usually between 3 or more people.
Sharing, linking, comparing	Using one or two sets of information.	Using two or three sets of information.	Using three or more sets of information.
Interpreting graphs, charts, tables, etc.	Interpretation limited to a limited number of simple illustrations.	Graphical illustrations more complex than ESL 2 text.	Graphical illustrations more complex than ESL 3.
Style (cultural/social use of language)	Situations drawn from culture of daily life (e.g., telephone talk, asking questions).	Skills for daily life with more emphasis on expressing difference and emotion. Introduction of a few requiring communication style skills for business or academic life (e.g., providing examples to support statements).	More situations drawn from business and academic life (e.g., leading group discussions or asking for clarification).

VIII. Teaching ESL Reading

Observe the following principles in teaching reading to ESL students.

Silent vs. Oral Reading.--Oral Reading Readiness.

In the case of ESL students, reading aloud often does more harm than good. For this reason, it is simply not considered good practice in ESL teaching. ESL students should never read aloud until completely ready.

Oral reading readiness means that students fully understand everything they read and can deliver the print text orally in ways that communicate meaning though intonation, enunciation, and other oral delivery skills.

Never, never ask students to read aloud until they are fully able to communicate understanding and meaning by their oral delivery. This means that students will rarely read aloud until they have done all the other work required in the reading sections.

Should Students Ever Read Aloud?

Generally, no! We seldom read aloud in real life. Reading is, by definition, a more private experience than speaking, writing, or listening. It is, therefore, illogical to ask students to read aloud in class, especially before they really understand what they are reading.

When Might Students Read Aloud?

The only reason students might read aloud in an ESL class is for oral interpretation. That means being fully able to use English oral production to communicate meaning through correct intonation, enunciation, and other oral English language delivery skills.

Should Teachers Correct Pronunciation?

Teachers who correct student pronunciation in mid-sentence or mid-passage are not teaching pronunciation—they are interrupting the reading process. Do so very sparingly, if at all.

Should Students Use Dictionaries in Class?

Seldom if ever. Discourage dictionary use when reading. Students develop reading skills when required to understand meaning from context, not by looking up the meaning of words.

IX. NorthStar Reading and Writing Texts for Business English and ARW

The Spanish-American Institute uses NorthStar Reading and Writing: High Intermediate in Business English and NorthStar Reading and Writing: Advanced in Advanced Reading and Writing. These are companion textbooks to NorthStar High Intermediate Listening and Speaking used in ESL 5 and to Advanced Listening and Speaking used in ESL 6. Each Reading and Writing unit will use the same theme as its parallel unit in Listening and Speaking.

ESL 5, ESL 6, Business English, and ARW Course Sequencing.

Since both ESL 5 and Business English parallel High Intermediate texts, teachers and staff should encourage students to take Business English after ESL 5. (Very well-prepared students may take the two courses simultaneously.) Likewise, since both ESL 6 and ARW use parallel Advanced texts, teachers and staff should encourage students to take ARW after ESL 6. (Very well-prepared students may take the two courses simultaneously.) In all cases, students should complete the four courses before TOEFL.

The NorthStar Reading and Writing Method.

All NorthStar texts integrate reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills. However, the Reading and Writing series places a greater emphasis on reading and writing. In addition, the Reading and Writing series emphasize all aspects of the writing process with greater attention to formal writing such as essays and reports.

The Reading and Writing method and organization parallels that of the Listening and Speaking texts. Students move from more structured to more independent reading and writing skills through carefully sequenced activities.

As always, teachers should:

· do all activities in sequence;

· repeat a preceding activity, if necessary; and

· never jump around in a unit or skip any activity.

Reading Passages. Instead of Listening selections, students prepare to read extensive Reading passages. Reading selections will most often be 2-3 pages each.

Formal Writing. Students will also do a great deal more writing than they did with the LS texts. Each RW unit leads up to a formal writing requirement, usually an essay.

Professionally Recorded Audio CDs. NorthStar Reading and Writing texts come with

audio CDs. The audio CDs contain professionally recorded oral readings of the reading passages.

Teachers must use the professionally recorded audio CDs. Like any other NorthStar activity, listening to the CDs should not be skipped. The professionally recorded reading passages serve three important purposes:

They provide students with a listening experience to complement their silent reading attempts to understand the printed text.
They help them hear correct pronunciation and intonation.
They help them understand how the voice is used to communicate meaning.

The Reading and Writing texts do not come with icons that tell teachers when or how to use the recorded reading passages. Teachers must decide when and how to best incorporate the professionally recorded reading selections. The L&S texts provide a good model for using listening CDs with the R& W texts. Suggestions for incorporating the audio CDs are provided in the sample lesson plan in the table below.

Teaching Writing.

Although NorthStar Reading and Writing texts focus more on reading and writing than do the Listening and Speaking texts, they still share the emphasis upon integrating the four language skills in every lesson. Whether in LS or in RW, students should write every day, in class and for homework. The following are important principles for teaching writing using NS materials.

Extend writing. Teachers can and should extend writing from most every NorthStar activity by adapting it to a writing activity.
Think about each unit's formal writing requirement. Each unit requires a formal essay or report (Section 4, Activity C, "Writing Topics"). Before starting a unit, review the Writing Topics section to see how the unit develops the skills needed for the essay.
Consult the Writing Activity Book and Teacher's Manuals for each NorthStar level The Writing Activity Book provides invaluable assistance to teachers in helping guide students through the essay writing process. The Teacher's Manual provides useful writing ideas.

Academic Writing in Advanced Reading and Writing.

ARW focuses on the writing process and the production of formal writing at levels required by the TOEFL test and in beginning American college courses.

Students should exit the Advanced Reading and Writing course knowing how to write formal essays and reports. They should also know how to apply the writing process (prewriting, organizing, reviewing, and editing) to formal writing tasks. Formal writing tasks include:

summaries
reports summarizing data
statements of opinion
short articles
cause-and-effect essays
compare-and-contrast essays
definition essays
advantages-disadvantages essays
descriptive essays
argumentative essays.

X. Model NorthStar Reading and Writing Lesson Plan

Below is a suggested reading lesson plan for NorthStar R&W texts.

Notice how closely the lesson plan for using the audio CDs with the R&W texts follows the method for using the audio CDs with the L&S texts.

The plan below assumes that teachers and students have already done the Predicting, Sharing Information, Preparing to Read, and Vocabulary for Comprehension activities that precede Reading One.

Reading Passages

(NorthStar Reading & Writing Text)

A. Reading One : Predicting the Main Idea

1.a. Teachers ask student to predict the topic from the title of the Reading One passage. Students then silently read the first paragraph or two to get the idea of the topic. Teachers and students discuss the main idea.

1.b. Students listen once or twice to oral recording of the introductory paragraph(s), either before or after reading silently. Listen first with books closed and then with books open.

2. The teacher asks a few factual questions to test students’ initial comprehension of the introductory paragraph(s). The teacher also asks them to predict the development of the topic in the rest of the reading passage. (Note that predicting the development of the topic is not the same as predicting the main idea.)

3. Teacher determines if students really understand the introductory paragraph(s). If not, teacher asks students to silently reread introductory section, as necessary.

5. Teacher redoes previous “Preparing to Read” sections (Background reading passage, Vocabulary for Comprehension, etc.) if students still having difficulty.

6. Etc.

Reading for the Main Idea

7.a. Oral Listening: Teacher plays some or all of the oral recording of reading passage. Student then read it silently in its entirety. (Or do this in reverse. Read first and then listen. Or listen, read, and the listen again.)

7.b. Scanning: Teacher asks students to read first line of next few paragraphs silently.

Class predicts from this how they think the main idea will be developed.

7.c.. Writing Summaries: Teachers might ask students to write a summary of how they think the passage will develop the main idea, based on Scanning.

7.d Skimming: Teacher asks students to skim the entire reading passage. Again, teacher asks questions about the main idea and its development. The focus is on recognizing how topic sentences provide a good summary of the main idea and its development. Students might re-write their summaries based on Skimming.

7.d Reading: Teacher assigns some or all of the reading passage as homework.

8 Comprehension: Students answer “main idea” questions from the text based on entire reading passage.

Reading for Details

9. Reading for Detail Activities: Students do activities and exercises from the text. Teacher may want to repeat reading of selected reading excerpts before this.

Close Reading: Teacher does more close reading of certain selections with the students.

Inferring Meaning: Teacher encourages students to infer meaning from context.

Rereading: Teacher may ask students to silently reread certain excerpts again.

Oral Recording: Teacher may again play oral recording in its entirely at the very end.

10. Reading Aloud: At this point, students might be asked to read aloud. More than one student can read the same passage aloud. The teaching emphasis is on oral interpretation, using the voice to communicate meaning.

XIII. Good ESL Testing Practices

Please ask yourself the following questions in developing bi-monthly and other exams:

q Do the exams correlate to the textbook and other teaching material? Do they use the publishers’ testing materials, especially for WorldView and NorthStar?

q Do the exams reflect principles of good practice and up-to-date language teaching methods?

q Do the exams test all four language skills—reading, writing, listening, and speaking, especially the first three of these skills?

q Do the exams reflect the objectives of their ESL levels? Are advanced students, for example, being asked to demonstrate an advanced command of English?

q Do the exams make full use of the publishers’ testing materials keyed to the unit(s) of student study?

Some questionable testing practices to avoid:

1. Avoid Passive Grammar Testing. The Institute discourages grammar testing except though application in writing and speaking. Grammar is not one of the four language skills. Its use is tested through its application such as in reading, writing, listening, and speaking.

2. Avoid Fill in the Blanks and Sentence Completion Testing. Tests should rarely if ever ask students to complete sentences. Asking students to complete sentences, especially a series of disconnected sentences, is contrary to all of the principles of good language teaching practice employed by NorthStar, WorldView, the TOEFL iBT test, etc.

3. Avoid Testing at Too Low or Too High an ESL level. Tests should challenge students to create with language consistent with their ESL placement level. The Institute encourages teachers to use the publishers’ tests that come with textbook material. In addition, the Institute encourages teachers to include one or more essays, even with beginning students. .

XIV. TOEFL NextGeneration iBT

TOEFL is not a language-learning course. It is a language application course.

ESL Preparation Before TOEFL. The Institute teaches the English language skills that students need for the iBT TOEFL in NorthStar-based ESL 5, ESL 6, Business English, and ARW courses. All four courses are critical to student preparation before TOEFL. Without these four courses, students will not have the language skills they will need for the TOEFL course and test.

Computer Skills Needed for the TOEFL iBT. The iBT test is done completely by computer. This includes word processing the two essays. Test takers have to have elementary word processing skills to cut, to paste, and to move items in answering certain questions. There are no computer tutorials.

TOEFL iBT Skills Integration. Although the TOEFL book is divided into Listening, Reading, Speaking, and Writing sections, the TOEFL iBT tests the four language skills in an integrated fashion. TOEFL teachers are expected to include all four skills in almost every class session as a matter of course within their assigned section of the textbook. For example, while working with the Reading section, students should also write, listen, and speak at the TOEFL level.

Below are Some examples of possible strategies that can be used to integrate some reading, some writing, some speaking, and some listening at the TOEFL level each class session:

q Require oral and/or written explanations for the choice of correct answer. Do this for every question.

q Require students to speak in complete sentences (no little bits of answers).

q Require oral and/or written explanations for wrong answers as well. Do this for several if not all questions.

q Have more than one student participate in explaining each right or wrong answer.

q Have students frame oral and/or written questions about a reading or listening passage.

q Require oral and/or written paraphrasing of selected sentences or passages.

q Require written explanations for at least one correct and/or incorrect answer per class session.

q Require written paraphrasing of selected sentences or passages. This is a good homework exercise that can be reviewed the next class session to create continuity and links between class sessions.

q Have students summarize reading selections both orally and in writing.

Section	Topic	Page
I	The Lexical Approach to Language Learning	7
II	The NorthStar Method	9
III	NorthStar Listening and Speaking Unit Organization	11
IV	NorthStar Listening and Speaking Distribution Model	15
V	NorthStar Supplementary Instructional Resources	17
VI	NorthStar Level Changes: Critical Thinking and Higher Order Language Skills	19
VII	Using NorthStar Video DVDs	21
VIII	Teaching ESL Reading	23
IX	NorthStar Reading and Writing Texts for Business English and ARW	25
X	Model NorthStar Reading and Writing Lesson Plan	27
XI	NorthStar Reading and Writing Instructional Resources	29
XII	Dictionaries for ESL 5 and Above	31
XIII	Good ESL Testing Practices	33
XIV	TOEFL NextGeneration iBT	35

Table of Contents

I. The Lexical Approach to Language Learning